Ecosystem scale processes

Projects
Publications

Larsen-C Benthos

On 12 July 2017, the Larsen-C Ice Shelf calved one of the largest iceberg originating from the Antarctic Peninsula ever recorded. As iceberg A68 moves north, it leaves behind an …

Scotia Sea open-ocean biological laboratories

Sustained ocean observing programme

SO-AntEco Biodiversity

In this collaboration with the Natural History Museum (NHM) and the University of Liverpool, we have developed novel methods for using existing data to contribute to marine conservation and fisheries …

Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Sea-Surface

In order to assess the impact of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) on the oceans today we are investigating the effect of decreasing upper ocean pH on calcifying zooplankton. Pteropods, …

Antarctic Seabed Carbon Capture Change

The ASCCC Project has been funded by ACE (Antarctic Circumnavigation Expedition) to investigate, quantify and understand the role of polar and subpolar seabeds in the carbon cycle, particularly in response …

Holocene fire activity during low-natural flammability periods reveals scale-dependent cultural human-fire relationships in Europe

1 December, 2018

Threatened species drive the strength of the carbonate pump in the northern Scotia Sea

2 November, 2018

Can the optimisation of pop-up agriculture in remote communities help feed the world?

1 September, 2018

Managing fishery development in sensitive ecosystems: Identifying penguin habitat use to direct management in Antarctica

1 August, 2018

Mollusc species richness and abundance from shelf to abyssal depths in the Ross Sea (Antarctica): the importance of fine-mesh-towed gears and implications for future sampling

1 October, 2017

Biological and physical characterization of the seabed surrounding Ascension Island from 100–1000 m

1 June, 2017

Ice melt influence on summertime net community production along the Western Antarctic Peninsula

1 May, 2017

Advection in polar and sub-polar environments: Impacts on high latitude marine ecosystems

14 October, 2016

IMBER – Research for marine sustainability: Synthesis and the way forward

1 December, 2015

Biogeography of photoautotrophs in the high polar biome

11 September, 2015

Onset, intensification, and decline of phytoplankton blooms in the Southern Ocean

28 July, 2015

The changing form of Antarctic biodiversity

25 June, 2015

Stresses on polar marine ecosystems: impact on key ecosystem functions and services

1 June, 2015

Carbon export efficiency and phytoplankton community composition in the Atlantic sector of the Arctic Ocean

1 June, 2015

The Southern Ocean ecosystem under multiple climate change stresses – an integrated circumpolar assessment

1 April, 2015

Poor transferability of species distribution models for a pelagic predator, the grey petrel, Indicates contrasting habitat preferences across ocean basins

6 March, 2015

Alien invasions. The impact of non-native species: changing the face of life on land in Antarctica?

1 January, 2015

Life beyond the ice

1 January, 2015

Assessing status and change in Southern Ocean ecosystems

1 August, 2014

Conclusions: Present and future of Southern Ocean biogeography

1 August, 2014

Bipolarity

1 August, 2014

Commonness and rarity in the marine biosphere

10 June, 2014

Ecology and distribution of the grey notothen, Lepidonotothen squamifrons, around South Georgia and Shag Rocks, Southern Ocean

1 June, 2014

The spatial structure of Antarctic biodiversity

1 May, 2014

Setting the scene: human activities, environmental impacts and governance arrangements in Antarctica

1 January, 2014

Antarctic Thresholds – Ecosystem Resilience and Adaptation” (AnT-ERA), a new SCAR-biology programme

9 October, 2013

Ecosystem services of the Southern Ocean: trade-offs in decision-making

1 October, 2013

The macro- and megabenthic fauna on the continental shelf of the eastern Amundsen Sea, Antarctica

1 October, 2013

West Antarctic Peninsula: An ice-dependent coastal marine ecosystem in transition

1 September, 2013

Reduced seasonality in elemental CHN composition of Antarctic marine benthic predators and scavengers

1 August, 2013

Decision-making for ecosystem-based management: evaluating options for a krill fishery with an ecosystem dynamics model

1 June, 2013

Polar Ecosystems

1 June, 2013

Comparison of the structure and function of Southern Ocean regional ecosystems: The Antarctic Peninsula and South Georgia

1 January, 2013

Antarctic ecosystems

1 January, 2013

Comparison of methods for determining key marine areas from tracking data

1 January, 2013

Southern Ocean Deep Benthic Biodiversity

17 February, 2012

The Peninsula

1 January, 2012

The Southern Ocean Observing System: Initial science and implementation strategy

1 January, 2012

Developing integrated models of Southern Ocean food webs: including ecological complexity, accounting for uncertainty and the importance of scale

1 January, 2012

The impacts of climate change on circumpolar biodiversity

1 January, 2012

The discovery of new deep-sea hydrothermal vent communities in the Southern Ocean and implications for biogeography

1 January, 2012

Long-term ecosystem networks to record change: an international imperative

1 January, 2011

Importance of diatoms for Oithona in Antarctic waters

1 January, 2011

Is there a distinct continental slope fauna in the Antarctic?

1 January, 2011

Marine ecology: processes, systems, and impacts

1 January, 2011

Highly diverse, poorly studied and uniquely threatened by climate change: an assessment of marine biodiversity on South Georgia’s continental shelf

1 January, 2011

Biodiversity change after climate-induced ice-shelf collapse in the Antarctic

1 January, 2011

Quantifying Antarctic marine biodiversity: The SCAR-MarBIN data portal

1 January, 2011

Changes in lichen diversity and community structure with fur seal population increase on Signy Island, South Orkney Islands

1 January, 2011

Scott’s collections help reveal accelerating marine life growth in Antarctica

1 January, 2011

Larger foraging range but similar habitat selection in non-breeding versus breeding sub-Antarctic penguins

1 January, 2011

Stability of complex food webs: Resilience, resistance and the average interaction strength

1 January, 2011

The Southern Ocean: Source and sink?

1 January, 2011

Turning on the heat: ecological response to simulated warming in the sea

1 January, 2011

Near-bottom current direction inferred from comatulid crinoid feeding postures on the Terre Adelie and George V shelf, East Antarctica

1 January, 2011

Maud Rise – a snapshot through the water column

1 January, 2011

Antarctic marine biology

1 January, 2011

End-to-end models for the analysis of marine ecosystems: challenges, issues and next steps

1 January, 2010

Identifying the origins of fishing gear ingested by seabirds: a novel multivariate approach

1 January, 2010

Seasonal variation in oceanographic habitat and behaviour of white-chinned petrels (Procellaria aequinoctialis) from Kerguelen Island

1 January, 2010

Eradications of invasive mammals from islands: why, where, how and what next?

1 January, 2010

Climate change and the Antarctic marine ecosystem: an essay on management implications

1 January, 2010

Comparison of the emergent behavior of a complex ecosystem model in two ocean general circulation models

1 January, 2010

Using ecosystem monitoring data to detect impacts

1 January, 2010

Marine ecosystem models for earth systems applications: The MarQUEST experience

1 January, 2010

The establishment of a new ecological guild of pollinating insects on sub-Antarctic South Georgia

1 January, 2010

Antarctic marine biodiversity – What do we know about the distribution of life in the Southern Ocean?

1 January, 2010

Linking predator and prey behaviour: contrasts between Antarctic fur seals and macaroni penguins at South Georgia

1 January, 2010

Deep-sea demersal fish species richness in the Porcupine Seabight, NE Atlantic Ocean: global and regional patterns

1 January, 2010

Perfluorinated compounds in the Antarctic region: Ocean circulation provides prolonged protection from distant sources

1 January, 2010

Sensitivity of global ocean biogeochemical dynamics to ecosystem structure in a future climate

1 January, 2010

The limnology and biology of the Dufek Massif, Transantarctic Mountains 82° South

1 January, 2010

Ecological relevance of laboratory determined temperature limits: colonization potential, biogeography and resilience of Antarctic invertebrates to environmental change

1 January, 2010

Responding to climate change: Adélie penguins confront astronomical and ocean boundaries

1 January, 2010

Discovery 2010: understanding the Scotia Sea food web

1 January, 2010

The response of two ecologically important Antarctic invertebrates (Sterechinus neumayeri and Parborlasia corrugatus) to reduced seawater pH: Effects on fertilsation and embryonic development

1 January, 2010

Terrestrial biodiversity in Antarctica – recent advances and future challenges

1 January, 2010

Trophic position of deep-sea fish – assessment through fatty acid and stable isotope analyses

1 January, 2009

Flight morphology and foraging behaviour of male and female Cory’s shearwaters

1 January, 2009

Albatross foraging behaviour: no evidence for dual foraging, and limited support for anticipatory regulation of provisioning at South Georgia

1 January, 2009

Quantifying habitat use and preferences of pelagic seabirds using individual movement data: a review

1 January, 2009

Where do penguins go during the inter-breeding period? Using geolocation to track their winter dispersion of the macaroni penguin

1 January, 2009

Assemblage level variation in springtail lower lethal temperature: the role of invasive species on sub-Antarctic Marion Island

1 January, 2009

Diel vertical migration of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) is flexible during advection across the Scotia Sea

1 January, 2009

Environmental change and human impacts on terrestrial ecosystems of the sub-Antarctic islands between their discovery and the mid-twentieth century

1 January, 2009

Bathymetric distribution patterns of Southern Ocean macrofaunal taxa: Bivalvia, Gastropoda, Isopoda and Polychaeta

1 January, 2009

Migration and stopover in a small pelagic seabird, the Manx shearwater Puffinus puffinus: insights from machine learning

1 January, 2009

Towards a generalized biogeography of the Southern Ocean benthos

1 January, 2009

Evaluating the prudence of parents: daily energy expenditure throughout the annual cycle of a free-ranging bird, the macaroni penguin Eudyptes chrysolophus

1 January, 2009

Macrophysiology: a conceptual reunification

1 January, 2009

Animal temperature limits and ecological relevance: effects of size, activity and rates of change

1 January, 2009

Emission of methane from plants

1 January, 2009

Tracking macaroni penguins during long foraging trips using ‘behavioural geolocation’

1 January, 2009

Variability and predictability of Antarctic krill swarm structure

1 January, 2009

Antarctic islands, geology

1 January, 2009

Local ecosystem feedbacks and critical transitions in the climate

1 January, 2009

Southern Ocean deep-water carbon export enhanced by natural iron fertilization

1 January, 2009

Plankton functional types in a new generation of biogeochemical models. Integration of plankton abundance data for the evaluation of marine biogeochemical models, Cambridge, UK, October 2008. (Meeting report)

1 January, 2009

Role of krill versus bottom-up factors in controlling phytoplankton biomass in the northern Antarctic waters of South Georgia

1 January, 2009

Vision in lanternfish (Myctophidae): Adaptations for viewing bioluminescence in the deep-sea

1 January, 2009

Exploitation of the marine ecosystem in the sub-Antarctic: historical impacts and current consequences

1 January, 2009

Impacts of local human activities on the Antarctic environment

1 January, 2009

Surface circulation at the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula from drifters

1 January, 2009

Modelling predation by transient leopard seals for an ecosystem-based management of Southern Ocean fisheries

1 January, 2009

Strategies of survival and resource exploitation in the Antarctic fellfield ecosystem

1 January, 2009

Detection of fungal 18S rRNA sequences in conjunction with marine nematode 18S rRNA amplicons

1 January, 2009

The risk to fishery performance associated with spatially resolved management of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) harvesting

1 January, 2009

Penguins from space: faecal stains reveal the location of emperor penguin colonies

1 January, 2009

Benthic community response to iceberg scouring at an intensely disturbed shallow water site at Adelaide Island, Antarctica

1 January, 2008

Biodiversity of echinoids and their epibionts around the Scotia Arc, Antarctica

1 January, 2008

Antarctic marine biodiversity – a taxonomic crisis?

1 January, 2008

Seasonal variation in the white muscle biochemical composition of deep-sea macrourids in the North-east Atlantic

1 January, 2008

The last deglaciation of Cape Adare, northern Victoria Land, Antarctica

1 January, 2008

Distribution of macrobenthic taxa across the Scotia Arc, Southern Ocean

1 January, 2008

Ecological stoichiometry in six species of Antarctic marine benthos

1 January, 2008

Breeding distribution and population status of the northern giant petrel Macronectes halli and the southern giant petrel M. giganteus

1 January, 2008

A species approach to marine ecosystem conservation

1 January, 2008

Variability in intertidal communities along a latitudinal gradient in the Southern Ocean

1 January, 2008

The biology of polar regions

1 January, 2008

Post-breeding movement and activities of two streaked shearwaters in the north-western Pacific

1 January, 2008

The power of ecosystem monitoring

1 January, 2008

Vertebrate nutrition in a deep-sea hydrothermal vent ecosystem: fatty acid and stable isotope evidence

1 January, 2008

Temperature limits to activity, feeding and metabolism in the Antarctic starfish Odontaster validus

1 January, 2008

Biodiversity of the bacterioplankton in the surface waters around Southern Thule in the Southern Ocean

1 January, 2008

A new technique for periodic bait release at a deep-sea camera platform: first results from the Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone, Mid-Atlantic Ridge

1 January, 2008

Epibenthic macrofauna associated with the shelf and slope of a young and isolated Southern Ocean island

1 January, 2008

Southern Ocean deep-sea biodiversity: sampling strategies and predicting responses to climate change

1 January, 2008

Offshore spatial segregation in giant petrels Macronectes spp.: differences between species, sexes and seasons

1 January, 2008

Soil properties of an Antarctic inland site: implications for ecosystem development

1 January, 2008

Near-future level of CO2-driven ocean acidification radically affects larval survival and development in the brittlestar Ophiothrix fragilis

1 January, 2008

Distribution, growth, diet and foraging behaviour of the yellow-fin notothen Patagonotothen guntheri (Norman)on the Shag Rocks shelf (Southern Ocean)

1 January, 2008

Adult Antarctic krill feeding at abyssal depths

1 January, 2008

Seasonal and interannual variability in temperature, chlorophyll and macronutrients in northern Marguerite Bay, Antarctica

1 January, 2008

Polar and ice-edge marine systems

1 January, 2008

Antarctic marine benthic diversity: patterns and processes

1 January, 2008

Vulnerability of Antarctic shelf biodiversity to predicted regional warming

1 January, 2008

South Shetland Islands

1 January, 2007

Reconciling complexity with stability in naturally assembling food webs

1 January, 2007

Trans-equatorial migration and mixing in the wintering areas of a pelagic seabird

1 January, 2007

The redevelopment of Rothera Research Station

1 January, 2007

Environmental forcing and Southern Ocean marine predator populations: effects of climate change and variability

1 January, 2007

Half a continent in a square kilometre: the exceptional lichen diversity of a small Antarctic island

1 January, 2007

South Sandwich Islands

1 January, 2007

Rich and rare – first insights into species diversity and abundance of Antarctic abyssal Gastropoda (Mollusca)

1 January, 2007

Phytoplankton community composition around the Crozet Plateau, with emphasis on diatoms and Phaeocystis

1 January, 2007

Foraging behaviour of four albatross species by night and day

1 January, 2007

Very slow development in two Antarctic bivalve molluscs, the infaunal clam Laternula elliptica and the scallop Adamussium colbecki

1 January, 2007

Paradigm misplaced? Antarctic marine ecosystems are affected by climate change as well as biological processes and harvesting

1 January, 2007

Macro- and megabenthic assemblages in the bathyal and abyssal Weddell Sea (Southern Ocean)

1 January, 2007

Fisheries in the Southern Ocean: an ecosystem approach

1 January, 2007

Community structure and grazing impact of mesozooplankton during late spring/early summer 2004/2005 in the vicinity of the Crozet Islands (Southern Ocean)

1 January, 2007

Antarctic Peninsula

1 January, 2007

Deception Island

1 January, 2007

Antarctic marine biodiversity challenged by global change: the CAML/SCAR-MarBIN benchmark

1 January, 2007

Antarctic biodiversity

1 January, 2007

A holistic approach to understanding the biological impacts of climate change: Antarctica as a planetary warning system

1 January, 2007

Influences on and origins of terrestrial biodiversity of the sub-Antarctic islands

1 January, 2007

Interannual to diurnal variability in the near-surface scattering layer in Drake Passage

1 January, 2007

Richness, abundance and shell use of subarctic and arctic hermit crabs

1 January, 2007

Antarctic ecology: from genes to ecosystems. Part 1

1 January, 2007

Variation in physical, chemical and biological components in the subantarctic lakes of South Georgia

1 December, 2006

Antarctic climate change and its influence on terrestrial ecosystems

1 January, 2006

Trends in Antarctic terrestrial and limnetic ecosystems: Antarctica as a global indicator

1 January, 2006

Marine ecology: processes, systems, and impacts

1 January, 2005

Polar systems

1 January, 2005

Scotia Arc deep-water bivalves: composition, distribution and relationship to the Antarctic shelf fauna

1 January, 2004

Factors influencing the distribution, biomass, and productivity of phytoplankton in the Scotia Sea and adjoining waters

1 January, 2004

Advection, krill, and Antarctic marine ecosystems

1 January, 2004

Options for allocating the precautionary catch limit of krill among small-scale management units in the Scotia Sea

1 January, 2004

Foraging ecology and interactions with fisheries of wandering albatrosses (Diomedea exulans) breeding at South Georgia

1 January, 2004

Temporal and spatial components of variability in benthic recruitment, a 5-year temperate example

1 January, 2004

Tracking passive drifters in a high resolution ocean model: implications for interannual variability of larval krill transport to South Georgia

1 January, 2004

Biomass and energy transfer to baleen whales in the South Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean

1 January, 2004

Spatial distribution of predator/prey interactions in the Scotia Sea: implications for measuring predator/fisheries overlap

1 January, 2004

Southern Antarctic Circumpolar Current Front to the northeast of South Georgia: horizontal advection of krill and its role in the ecosystem

1 January, 2004

A Bayesian hierarchical formulation of the De Lury stock assessment model for abundance estimation of Falkland Islands’ squid (Loligo gahi)

1 January, 2004

Temporal variations in fatty acid composition of deep-sea holothurians: evidence of bentho-pelagic coupling

1 January, 2004

Biomass of Antarctic krill in the Scotia Sea in January/February 2000 and its use in revising an estimate of precautionary yield

1 January, 2004

Management of Southern Ocean fisheries: global forces and future sustainability

1 January, 2004

Polar pedunculate barnacles piggy-back on pycnogona, penguins, pinniped seals and plastics

1 January, 2004

Long-term decline in krill stock and increase in salps within the Southern Ocean

1 January, 2004

Interannual variation in the diets of two albatross species breeding at South Georgia: implications for breeding performance

1 January, 2003

Mesozooplankton community structure across the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to the north of South Georgia: Southern Ocean

1 January, 2003

Calanus finmarchicus descends in response to the arrival of krill – better unfed than dead

1 January, 2003

Selective feeding by benthic foraminifera on phytodetritus on the western Antarctic Peninsula shelf: evidence from fatty acid biomarker analysis

1 January, 2003

Maritime Antarctic climate change: signals from terrestrial biology

1 January, 2003

Evolution, adaptation and diversity: global ecology in an Antarctic context

1 January, 2003

Ecological responses of maritime Antarctic lakes to regional climate change

1 January, 2003

Polar marine ecosystems: major threats and future change

1 January, 2003

Maximum entropy reconstructions of krill distribution and estimates of krill density from acoustic surveys at South Georgia, 1996-2000

1 January, 2003

Seasonal variation in the gametogenic ecology of the Antarctic scallop Adamussium colbecki

1 January, 2003

Foraging strategies of chinstrap penguins at Signy Island, Antarctica: importance of benthic feeding on Antarctic krill

1 January, 2003

Biophysical and habitat changes in response to climate alteration in the Arctic and Antarctic

1 January, 2003

The impact crater as a habitat: effects of impact processing of target materials

1 January, 2003

The polar deep seas

1 January, 2003

Climatic control of ultraviolet radiation effects on lakes

1 January, 2003

Monitoring the prey-field of marine predators: combining digital imaging with datalogging tags

1 January, 2002

Squids in

1 January, 2002

The biology of impact craters – a review

1 January, 2002

Antarctic science in the global context 2000-2005. 2nd edition

1 January, 2002

Assessment of stone crab (Lithodidae) density on the South Georgia slope using baited video cameras

1 January, 2002

Polarization of competition increases with latitude

1 January, 2002

Polar punches and tropical truces

1 January, 2002

Energy requirements of female macaroni penguins breeding at South Georgia

1 January, 2002

Primary production and carbon uptake dynamics in the vicinity of South Georgia – balancing carbon fixation and removal

1 January, 2002

The importance of the Patagonian Shelf for top predator species breeding at South Georgia

1 January, 2002

Macroecology comes of age

1 January, 2002

The measurement of dispersal by seabirds and seals: implications for understanding their ecology

1 January, 2002

Estimating food consumption of marine predators: Antarctic fur seals and macaroni penguins

1 January, 2002

Feather mercury levels in seabirds at South Georgia: influence of trophic position, sex and age

1 January, 2002

Seasonality and inter-annual variability in recruitment patterns of temperate encrusting fauna

1 January, 2002

Temporospatial constraints in resources available to and used by hermit crabs: tests of models

1 January, 2002

Hermit crabs, humans and crowded house markets

1 January, 2002

Modelling multivariate determinants of growth in Antarctic bryozoans

1 January, 2002

Seasonal and interannual variation in foraging range and habitat of macaroni penguins Eudyptes chrysolophus at South Georgia

1 January, 2002

Environmental response of upper trophic-level predators reveals a system change in an Antarctic marine ecosystem

1 January, 2001

Terrestrial ecosystem responses to climate changes in the Antarctic

1 January, 2001

South Georgia, Antarctica: a productive, cold water pelagic ecosystem

1 January, 2001

Microbiology and vegetation of micro-oases and polar desert, Haughton Impact Crater, Devon Island, Nunavut, Canada

1 January, 2001

Antarctic ecosystems

1 January, 2001

Large-scale patterns and processes – introduction

1 January, 2000

The terrestrial micro-arthropod fauna of the South Sandwich Islands

1 January, 2000

The flora of the South Sandwich Islands, with particular reference to the influence of geothermal heating

1 January, 2000

The terrestrial biota of Charcot Island, eastern Bellingshausen Sea, Antarctica: an example of extreme isolation

1 January, 2000

Environmental change and Antarctic terrestrial life histories: fact and prediction

1 January, 2000

Ecosystem dynamics involving krill

1 January, 2000

What is the state of the Antarctic environment? (editorial)

1 January, 2000

Roles of krill in marine food webs: the Southern Ocean

1 January, 2000

Ecosystem dynamics involving krill

1 January, 2000

Annual plankton dynamics in an Antarctic saline lake

1 January, 1999

Variation in standing stock of the mackerel icefish Champsocephalus gunnari at South Georgia

1 January, 1999

170 years of research of the Antarctic moss flora

1 January, 1998

Priorities for terrestrial Antarctic research

1 July, 1997

Diversity, latitude and time: patterns in the shallow sea.

1 January, 1997

An assessment of the role of the marginal ice zone in the carbon cycle of the Southern Ocean

1 December, 1996

Eukaryotic microbiota in the surface waters and sea ice of the Southern Ocean: aspects of physiology, ecology and biodiversity in a ‘two-phase’ ecosystem

1 November, 1996

The seasonal cycle of phytoplankton, macronutrients, and the microbial community in a nearshore antarctic marine ecosystem

1 September, 1996

Mixed fractals and anisotropy in subantarctic marine macroalgae from South Georgia:implications for epifaunal biomass and abundance

1 June, 1996

Benthic marine habitats in Antarctica

1 January, 1996

Antarctic terrestrial ecosystem response to global environmental change

1 November, 1995

Spatial structure of the Southern Ocean ecosystem: predator-prey linkages in Southern Ocean food webs

1 January, 1995

Terrestrial ecosystems: Antarctica

1 January, 1994

Marine ornithology in the southern Drake Passage and Bransfield Strait during the BIOMASS Programme

1 January, 1994

Variations in the distribution of chlorophyll a and inorganic nutrients around South Georgia, South Atlantic

1 December, 1993

Dry coastal ecosystems of Antarctica

1 January, 1993

Dry coastal ecosystems on sub-Antarctic islands

1 January, 1993

Ecological and oceanographic relationships in the Southern Ocean

1 January, 1993

Is there a latitudinal diversity cline in the sea?

1 September, 1992

Effects on ecosystems

1 January, 1990

Signy Island as a paradigm of biological and environmental change in Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems.

1 January, 1990

Colonization of terrestrial habitats – organisms, opportunities and occurrence

1 January, 1990

Environmental assessment in the Antarctic

1 January, 1989

Seasonality in the antarctic marine environment

1 January, 1988